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REVIEW

Anatomy in the Third Reich: An Outline, Part 3.

The Science and Ethics of Anatomy in National

Socialist Germany and Postwar Consequences

S. HILDEBRANDT

Division of Anatomical Sciences, Ofﬁce of Medical Education, University of Michigan Medical School,

Ann Arbor, Michigan

Anatomists in National Socialist (NS) Germany did research on materials from

animals and humans, inc luding tissues from the bodies of NS victims. The

research was competent but rarely innovative. This may be due to the isolation

of the German research community from international deve lopments, as well as

to the dismissal of a great number of successful anatomists for racial or political

reasons. Other research was unproductive because of its foundation in the pseu-

doscience of racial hygiene. Anatomists in the Third Reich acted according to a

new set of medical ethics favored by the NS regime. Not the individual human

being but the ‘‘body of the people’’ as a whole was the object of this ethics. Every

action was ethical that ensured the health of the German people, including steri-

lization, so-called euthanasia, and ﬁnally mass murder. Anatomists made use of

the opportunities given to them by the NS regime, which led to the postmortem

utilization of the bodies of NS victims. After the war, most anatomists retained

their positions and NS history was not discussed until the later 20th century.

Since then, historical research and public discussions have led to an increased

awareness of questions of ethics in anatomy. The history of anatomy in the Third

Reich illustrates that the theory and practice of a science is dependent on the

political system it exists in, and that the scientists’ competence not only in their

science but also in politics and ethics is a prerequisite for the freedom of science.

Clin. Anat. 22:906–915, 2009.

2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Key words: anatomy; National Socialism; racial hygiene; NS victims; ethics in

anatomy

INTRODUCTION

Parts 1 and 2 of ‘‘Anatomy in the Third Reich’’

have examined the relationship between politics and

anatomy in National Socialist (NS) Germany, the

source and identity of bodies for anatomical dissec-

tion, their use for other related medical disciplines,

and ﬁnally the connection between anatomy and

racial hygiene. Part 3 analyzes the scientiﬁc contri-

butions to the ﬁeld of anatomy by German anato-

mists between 1933 and 1945 and the use of bodies

of NS victims in their work. The ethics of these anat-

omists and possible explanations for their behavior

will be explored. Lastly, the postwar history of

German anatomy is examined. This ﬁrst overview of

the anatomy in the Third Reich shows that much

information is available and preliminary conclusions

can be drawn, while many questions remain open

and require further research.

*Correspondence to: Sabine Hildebrandt, Division of Anatomical

Sciences, Ofﬁce of Medical Education, University of Michigan Medi-

cal School, 3767 Medical Science Building II, Catherine Street,

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0608, USA. E-mail: shilde@umich.edu

Received 22 April 2009; Revised 2 September 2009; Accepted

13 September 2009

Published online 16 October 2009 in Wiley InterScience (www.

interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/ca.20874

2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Clinical Anatomy 22:906–915 (2009)

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Página 1

REVIEWAnatomy in the Third Reich: An Outline, Part 3.The Science and Ethics of Anatomy in NationalSocialist Germany and Postwar ConsequencesS. HILDEBR

Página 2 - Concepts and Research

Vescovi G. 1979. Das Herz sieht anders aus. Stuttgart: DeutscheVerlags-Anstalt. p 1–317.Vieten B. 1982. Medizinstudenten in Mu¨nster. Universita¨t und

Página 3

METHODSMaterial was collected and analyzed concerninganatomical research in NS Germany, the evaluationof science and anatomy speciﬁcally, on the ethic

Página 4 - German Anatomy After the War

embryology, and comparative anatomy. Especially,the ﬁeld of Entwicklungsmechanik (experimental andphysiological embryology) had proved to be fertilean

Página 5 - Postwar Consequences

human being, but the ‘‘body of the people’’ was theobject of NS medical ethics, and human beings werenot seen as individuals, but exclusively in their

Página 6 - DISCUSSION

tions directly or after a short hiatus of suspension,e.g., Helmut Becher of Mu¨nster,Wilhelm Blotevogelof Breslau, Adolf Dabelow of Leipzig, Anton Kie

Página 7

human bodies had been sparked by Gunther vonHagens’ plastination exhibits in Germany (Hilde-brandt, 2008), and laws regulating the handling ofmaterial

Página 8 - REFERENCES

she had known personally (Pommer, 1967; Winkel-mann and Schagen, 2009). Another option couldhave been that the anatomists from the very begin-ning of

Página 9 - 914 Hildebrandt

concrete consequence for modern anatomy that canbe drawn from the study of this history is the devel-opment of ethical standards for the use of humanb

Página 10

Hubenstorf M. 1988. Vertriebene Medizin-Finale des Niedergangsder Wiener Medizinischen Schule? In: Vertriebene Vernunft II:Emigration und Exil o¨stere

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